1. Introduction
Taoism, also known as Daoism (Tao (dào) literally meaning "way"), is a highly influential Chinese philosophy and religious practice that first developed more than 2,500 years ago. Today, the Taoist philosophy is recognized not only in Asia, but also all over the world.
Today we are surrounded by many streams of Taoism. The most popular philosophical Taoist book, the Tao Te Ching, traditionally thought to be written by Lao Tzu in the 6th century BC, is sold in bookstores worldwide, alongside many other Taoist books. There are also various classes that teach breathing exercises such as Tai-chi and Qigong, which are rooted in the Inner Alchemy of Taoist tradition.
In the wake of the natural health and healing wave, along with the yoga boom, Taoist healing methods, including breathing exercises, meditation, and bodily posture exercises, have become more popular than ever, not only for cultivating the mind and body, but also as an alternative practice of medicine in Western society. Furthermore, Taoist-influenced lifestyle systems such as Feng Shui have also gained popularity in the West among people seeking universal harmony in their environment.
Below, I will discuss what Taoism is, how Taoism developed historically, and how it influenced traditional Chinese medicine.
2. What is Taoism?
1) Origin of Taoism
Taoism emerged from rural China as a folkloric religion. In particular, many Taoist practices were thought to have evolved from ancient shamanism during the Warring-States period (4th to 3rd centuries BC). Taoism drew its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists in the form of its main elements: Yin and Yang and the Five Phases.[1]
Lao Tzu, the author of the best-known Taoist classic, the Tao Te Ching, is traditionally regarded as the founder of philosophical Taoism. The Tao Te Ching is widely considered the principle work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of another influential Taoist philosopher, Zhuangzi (4th century BC).
Among the three classic philosophies that emerged in China, Taoism and Confucianism began around the same period, in the 6th century BC. Buddhism arrived China from India in the first century AD. Unlike Confucianism, which gained popularity with its social and political theory in Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), Taoism flourished during the Tang Dynasty (618- 907 AD). Taoism became the official state religion during the Tang Dynasty and remained until Neo-Confucianism began to gain political power during Song Dynasty (960–1279).[2]
Even to the present, Taoism grows in China by being constantly reimagined and reformulated to suit the needs of people in a changing society, dividing it into many schools of thought. It is impossible to separate Taoism from Chinese history or culture, or, most importantly, from traditional Chinese medicine.
2) Types of Taoism
There are three type of Taoism historically. One is the Philosophical Taoism, the second is Religious Taoism, and the last one is Alchemical Taoism.
a. Philosophical Taoism
Philosophical Taoism is based on close observations and studies of nature. As seen in the Tao Te Ching of Lao Tzu, which is based on the idea that human beings are an integrated part of the universe, the "flow of the universe" is highly regarded. Taoists conclude that each person is a microcosm of the universe and that the patterns of human society are a microscopic reflection of cosmic patterns.[3]
The term wu-wei (無爲) is the basic concept in Philosophical Taoism. It translates to mean "non-action," "effortless action," or "action without intent." “Non-active intervention" is one of the fundamental Taoist concepts. If someone tries to act against or out of rhythm with nature, the consequence may be a disruption to harmony. Taoism advocates the ideals of peace, harmony, non-action, and letting things take their own course.[4]
b. Religious Taoism
Religious Taoism developed alongside philosophical Taoism as a more strictly religious interpretation of Taoism. In this interpretation, Lao Tsu is regarded as one of three 'saints' - the ‘Supreme Venerable Sovereign’ divinity - and worshiped at Taoist temples, where he is decorated with symbolic images of yin-yang and the five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal and water). There is Taoist liturgy, as well as monks and nuns, in the religious development of Taoism.[5]
"Religious Daoism (道教 Daojiao) is the indigenous religion of China, which holds longevity and immortality as its highest object of faith. It advocates attaining Longevity (長生 Changsheng) and Immortality (成仙 Chengxian) through a process of Nourishing Life (養生 Yangsheng), Cultivation and Refinement (修煉 Xiulian), and the practise of virtuous conduct, in order to escape death and reach eternity.[6]"
Philosophical Taoism and Religious Taoism are closely related. The core concept is the same. The classics of Taoist philosophy such as Lao Tsu’s Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi’s writings became ‘Perfect Scriptures’ (真經 Zhenjing) of religious Taoism.[7]
c. Alchemical Taoism
Alchemical Taoism emerged in the 2nd century BC and still exists in the present day. Its two main branches are Waidan (External Alchemy or External elixir) and Neidan (Internal Alchemy or Internal elixir). Alchemical Taoism has been practiced since the shamanistic Taoism of early days. Both Waidan and Neidan are practiced to attain longevity and immortality – their highest goals – just like in Religious Taoism.[8]
- Waidan
Waidan refers to practices relating to the process of making an elixir, whose ingredients were herbal or chemical substances found outside of the body. Theses substances include mercury, sulfur, lead, and arsenic, as well as animal and botanical products. Some of these ingredients are found in Chinese herbology and traditional Chinese medicine.[9]
There was a great risk involved in this practice and in fact many casualties were recorded, including some emperors over several dynasties. All of them died from the toxic effects of “elixirs of immortality” that contained metals and minerals such as mercury and arsenic. They desired eternal life, but died from poison elixirs processed by Taoist monks.[10]
Alchemical experiments to increase longevity indirectly originated pharmaceutical chemistry. After the western Jin dynasty, it was very popular for scholar officials to make pills and take them in the hope of infinitely prolonging life. Unfortunately these metal pills terribly damaged takers’ bodies. What is more, Taoist magic figures combined into medicine had bad effects on its development.[11]
- Neidan
Neidan or Jindan ("golden elixir"; in other words, internal alchemy) derived from same theory as external alchemy (waidan). Instead of using substances found outside of body to achieve longevity and immortality, Neidan focuses on the elixir based on the principles of traditional Chinese medicine and the cultivation of substances already present inside of the body. These are called the Three Treasures, consisting of Jing (life essence), Qi or Ch'i (energy or vital energy), and Shen (spirit or mind).
"If the Three Treasures are healthy and flourishing, the body is strong; if they are drained and depleted, illnesses develop. When the alchemical texts speak of refining the Elixir, they actually mean refining the Three Treasures.[12]"
Neidan is composed by a combination of practices, including correlative cosmology (including the five-element theory), the emblems of the I Ching, medical theory, Taoist meditation, gymnastics, and sexual practice. For physical practice, visualization, breathing, and bodily posture exercises are used. Breathing exercises were used to preserve Jing, and bodily postures exercises were used to improve Qi flow in the body.[13]
Work Sited:
[1] Isabelle Robinet, Taoism: Growth of a Religion (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 [original French 1992]), 6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism
[2] Micah Issitt and Carlyn Main, Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs (ABC-CLIO, 2014), 232.
[3] Jampa Mackenzie Stewart, “Foundation of Taoist Practice,” 1995, 1–17. http://www.scribd.com/doc/2527647/Foundations-of-Taoist-Practice.
[4] Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, Cengage Learning, (2005, first published January 1994), 170.
[5] “Religious Taoism,” http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/religious-tao.html.
[6] “Similarities and differences between religious and philosophical Daoism,” http://en.daoinfo.org/wiki/Similarities_and_differences_between_religious_and_philosophical_Daoism.
[7] “Similarities and differences between religious and philosophical Daoism,” http://en.daoinfo.org/wiki/Similarities_and_differences_between_religious_and_philosophical_Daoism.
[8] Fabrizio Pregadio, Taoist Alchemy: Neidan and Waidan, (Golden Elixir Press, 2014). http://www.goldenelixir.com/jindan.html.
[9] Mark Rogers, The Esoteric Codex: Alchemy I (LULU Press, 2013). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_alchemical_elixir_poisoning.
[10] Zhenguao Wang, History and Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Science Press, 1999), 96-97.
[11] Zhenguao Wang, History and Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Science Press, 1999), 96-97.
[12] Mu Wang and Fabrizio Pregadio, Foundations of Internal Alchemy, The Taoist Practice of Neidan, translated and edited by Fabrizio Pregadio (Golden Elixir Press, 2011), 15.
[13] Mark Rogers, The Esoteric Codex: Alchemy I (LULU Press, 2013). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_alchemical_elixir_poisoning.